MOTIVATION TO WORK

Organisational psychology brings together theories and research from across  psychology and applies this to the study of organisations. It looks deeper into how people think, feel, and behave within organisations. 

→ 4.1.1 NEED THEORIES: (Maslow, McClelland) 

Maslow’s Hierarchy (1943) comprises 5 basic needs; our needs determine our  actions, and we will always try to satisfy each level first therefore increasing motivation.  The levels are as follows:  

1. Physiological Needs – Food, water, shelter, rest, air, warmth. 

2. Safety Needs – Protection from threats, job security, health, and safety to work,  and financial security.  

3. Social Needs – Trust, Acceptance, Friendship, belonging to a group. 4. Esteem Needs – Respect from others, Status, Recognition of achievements. 5. Self-Actualisation – Reaching one’s full potential. And accomplishing everything  you wanted to. 

Maslow considered the first 4 levels as deficiency needs meaning that these needs are  how we get motivated to obtain something we don’t have, and the longer they are  unmet the stronger our motivation is. The last level of self-actualisation is a growth  need, here motivation turns into trying to grow as a person instead of obtaining something. 

What Maslow’s theory means in the WORKPLACE:  

1. Physiological Needs – Having enough wages/income to buy food and pay for  rent etc. 

2. Safety Needs – Contract of employment showing job security, pension, and  having a safe workplace that protects you from threats.  

3. Social Needs – Feeling accepted and like an important part of an organization.  Good communication between workers to make them feel involved. 4. Esteem Needs – Recognition for work well done, status, advancement  (promotions) and responsibility lead to respect in the workplace. 

5. Self-Actualisation – Challenge the employee and allow them to grow regularly but  also with greater autonomy and freedom from supervision

EXAMPLE CASE STUDY: SAEEDNIA (2011) 

Saeednia (2011) tested Maslow's theory with a scale measuring basic needs  satisfaction among 30 participants. They interviewed them using open-ended questions  which produced qualitative data. The scale proved valid and reliable. Most organizations  address employees' basic needs like breaks and security through clear rules and  recognition. Meeting these needs can motivate employees to strive for higher goals like  self-actualization. 

McClelland’s Theory of Achievement Motivation (1961) 

McClelland identified three work-related innate motivation needs everyone has. These  are universal needs that everyone has regardless of age or gender, and we all need to  satisfy them. These motivators shape our behaviour at work. 

• Achievement Motivation: These people have a desire to get things done and accomplish things to be a success. Individuals will seek realistic and challenging goals of job advancement. Those with high achievement needs would make the  best leaders within a workplace.  

• Authority / Power Motivation: The desire to control others and be influential  enough to make an impact through the decision-making process as that is their  motivation.  

• Affiliation Motivation: Those with high affiliation needs want SOCIAL interactions  with others. They need to be liked by others, to be accepted as part of a group,  and to put effort into developing and maintaining social relationships. 

EVALUATION OF NEED THEORIES: 

Strengths: 

1. McClelland's theory is that it can be used to find out the needs of potential and  current employees. This allows managers to place people into areas in which  they can excel.  

2. Maslow’s theory and Self-actualisation for Maslow refer to the desire for self fulfilment, which can be met in many ways, either individualist like becoming a  parent or situational and achieving your goals through work. 

Weaknesses:  

1. The theories are very difficult to test out since they are very theoretical. McClelland’s theory used projective tests (ambiguous ink blots and the response  to those stimuli reveals true hidden motions or conflicts that one projects onto the  image) 

2. Maslow's theory may not be valid as he assumes that lower needs must be met  before you can move on to higher-level needs. But those in poverty may not  meet the first two tiers yet still show love and belonging (tiers 3 and 4)

Issues and Debates:  

Reductionism Versus Holism: Maslow’s is very holistic as it states not just physiological needs are important but also psychological needs, so it considers many factors and it’s  a more complete theory. 

Application to everyday Life: Both theories have made a large contribution to  organisational psychology and increasing motivation in the workplace. Therefore,  employers can use the theory to ensure that workers feel safe and have a stable wage,  meaning that they will feel more motivated, making the theory useful. 

Cultural Differences: Between populations and cultures, the way safety or social needs  can differ from country to country. Maslow’s theory assumes self-actualisation is the  same in all cultures and McClelland’s theory doesn’t consider gender as it was made  using males working in organizations of Western societies, so perhaps females from  Asian countries wouldn’t be able to relate to it.  

→ 4.1.2 COGNITIVE THEORIES: (Latham and Locke SMART,  Vroom's VIE theory) 

Latham and Locke’s – Goal Setting theory. (1980s) 

Locke (1968) / Locke (1981) suggested GOAL SETTING was a key motivator in getting  people to work hard. SMART goals are more effective than more general goals. 

1. Specific: Make your goals well-defined, clear, and not too complex to understand. 2. Measurable: The goals should have a specific criterion to track progress.  3. Achievable: The goal needs to be easy enough to achieve but challenging  

enough to stimulate motivation. It shouldn’t be something you can’t do.  4. Realistic: Think of the big picture. Ask yourself why you are setting the goal that  you’re setting. 

5. Time Bound: How much time do you have to achieve the goal, have you given  yourself enough time to see it through with a clear start and end date? 

Locke and Latham (1984) suggest that setting SPECIFC goals produces higher levels  of performance rather than VAUGE goals. Specific goals are harder to achieve and  present a greater challenge which makes an individual want to try harder. The goal setting theory provides guidance on how to set goals, there are 5 key principles referred to as the 4CF:  

1. Clarity: Goals should be clear, specific, and unambiguous.  

2. Challenge: The goal setter should feel like they are being stretched thin so then  when they achieve it feels like a reward.  

3. Complexity: Break down goals into separate tasks to be achieved at different  times 

4. Commitment: Goals should be understood and accepted to be effective and not  given up on during the last-minute 

5. Feedback: Must be given to assess progress and achievement 

Vroom's Expectancy (VIE) theory of motivation (1964) 

Vroom's expectancy theory states that an individual's motivation at work is influenced by  their expectations of future outcomes. It suggests that people make rational choices to  maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Motivation hinges on three key factors:  

1. Valence: This refers to the perceived value of the reward. It considers whether  the reward is desirable and satisfies a need, whether intrinsic (like a sense of  achievement) or extrinsic (like money or a gift card). 

2. Instrumentality: This factor assesses the belief that if one performs well, the  expected outcome or reward will occur and will be equivalent to the effort put in.  It's influenced by factors like trust in decision-makers, transparency in reward  allocation processes, and the clarity of the relationship between performance and  outcomes. 

3. Expectancy: Expectancy refers to the perception that effort will lead to the  intended performance goals or outcomes. It's influenced by factors such as  skill level, access to resources and information, and support from others. 

Vroom's formula for motivation is Motivation = Valence × Instrumentality × Expectancy.  If any of these factors are low, motivation will be low. The theory emphasizes the  importance of tailored rewards and clear connections between effort, performance, and  outcomes to enhance motivation at work. 

EVALUATION OF COGNITIVE THEORIES: 

Strengths: 

1. Locke and Latham’s theory is supported by 50 years of evidence-based research and is  still used in the industry today. The theory is high in RELIABILITY and APPLICATION  TO REAL LIFE, which helps improve motivation for workers and managers. 

2. Vroom's theory can predict the choices people will make. REDMOND (2009) suggested  that valence, instrumentality, and expectations al correlated highly in terms of  predictability. 

Weaknesses:  

1. Vroom's theory assumes people will always make rational and conscious choices when that is not usually the case. 

2. Vroom's theory also does not always apply to real life. This is because often  within the workplace, rewards are not correlated directly with performance, so the  instrumentality factor is useless

Issues and Debates:  

Reductionism vs. Holism: Locke and Latham’s theory is reductionist as it doesn’t consider other factors like physiological needs or the importance of past experiences just the cognitive factors of just setting clear goals. 

Cultural Differences: Locke and Latham’s theory is based upon values that are found in  individualistic Western societies, and so more collectivist cultures where the workplace  is different may not relate to this as much. 

Individual and Situational Explanations: Vroom's theory suggests individual factors like  personality and skills are more important to performance at work. 

→ 4.1.3 MOTIVATORS AT WORK: (Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and  Self-determination theory) 

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators:  

Intrinsic: something that comes from within; internal. It’s a sense of satisfaction or  achievement that comes from the actual performance of the task rather than the  consequences of completing the task. It also focuses on internal emotions and is when  behaviour is driven by factors such as the feeling of satisfaction at reaching a target,  recognition from a manager and praise. 

Types of intrinsic motivators: Praise, respect, recognition, empowerment, and a sense  of belonging, these are important as they act as positive reinforcement.  

Staff turnover (the number of employees that leave a business in a given time) has  been found to reduce if they are given intrinsic non-monetary rewards. BROWN and  ARMSTRONG (1999) discovered that fostering positive relationships and showing  appreciation reduce turnover and increase satisfaction. ROSE (1998) estimated that  75% of UK organizations utilize non-monetary recognition schemes, demonstrating their  widespread adoption and effectiveness. 

Extrinsic: something that comes from the outside; external. It’s a sense of motivation  that provides an external reward like money, promotions, or bonuses. 

Types of extrinsic motivators: pay, bonuses, profit sharing, & performance-related pay.  

Pay linked to performance can incentivize employees to work harder or faster for  increased earnings. Bonuses, especially in sectors like finance, can be substantial  supplements to salaries. Profit sharing distributes a portion of company profits among  workers, fostering a sense of belonging and potentially boosting motivation. However,  such systems may not apply universally, especially in non-profit-oriented sectors like  healthcare and education. The effectiveness of monetary rewards in enhancing productivity is debated. A paper by DE WAAL and JANSEN (2011), indicates positive  benefits of performance-related pay (BELFIELD & MARDSEN, 2005). Additionally, the  paper also cites how the growth of productivity in Chinese State industries could be  attributed to the use of bonuses (YAO, 1997). Other Studies from the UK like  DUFFHUES and KABIR (2008) found no correlation between the size of bonus  payments and performance. 

Self-Determination Theory – Deci and Ryan (1985):  

Self-determination is a theory of motivation concerned with intrinsic needs and personal  growth. Deci and Ryan found that the following innate psychological needs are essential  to self-determination:  

1. Autonomy: The desire for control and independence. Autonomy increases when  workers have freedom in how they monitor and manage their behaviour but decreases if  they feel controlled by others or face constant deadlines. 

2. Relatedness: The need to form connections and feel a sense of belonging within a  social group. Without these connections, achieving self-determination becomes  challenging due to feelings of isolation and lack of support. Respect and positive  relationships increase relatedness, while criticism or exclusion decreases it. 

3. Competence: The possession of necessary skills and qualities to effectively perform  tasks. Competence enables individuals to interact effectively with their environment and  achieve their goals. Negative feedback or tasks beyond one's abilities can decrease  competence, while positive feedback and well-matched tasks increase it. 

Offering extrinsic rewards for something someone already enjoys can make them feel  less in control and cause them to rely on those rewards, rather than their intrinsic  motivation, to continue the behaviour. This shift from doing a task intrinsically to  extrinsically because of a reward can make an individual feel like they're no longer  choosing to engage in the behaviour because they want to, but rather because they're  being incentivized to do so. 

EVALUATION OF MOTIVATORS AT WORK: 

Strengths: All theories can be applied to real life it is useful for managers of teams and organisations when considering what motivates their workers. 

Weaknesses: self-report methods to assess the importance of extrinsic and intrinsic  needs might be subject to social desirability bias. This jeopardizes validity.  

Issues and Debates: Individual and Situational: For motivators at work individual  differences are key because what motivates one person may not motivate another. Secondly, comparing individualistic and collectivist cultures: Workers’ motivation can be  determined by the culture in which they work. 

KEY STUDY NAME: LANDRY ET AL (2019) 

Applying self-determination to understand the motivational impact of  cash rewards.

Aim	To see the effect of an individual's motivation and performance  when a reward was presented as either supporting or  controlling.
Main Theories Explained	Monetary rewards are extrinsic motivators that ensure  productivity and encourage staff retention. But these kinds of  rewards come at high costs to employers.   Deci and Ryan’s 1985 self-determination theory suggested that  motivation is primarily intrinsic and so rewards should be  meaningful so that they support our PSYCHOLOGICAL needs of  competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
Method   (Research method & design)	Independent measures design   Laboratory Experiment   Randomly assigned into either condition.  Independent Variable operationalised as either ‘autonomy threatening' or 'autonomy-supported'. (Type of reward offered for  participation.)  Self-report measures were used.
Sample	123 French-speaking students from a Canadian university, 60%  of whom were female. The students had a mean age of 23 years  and were a volunteer sample who gave their informed consent  to participate.
Procedure	Participants were divided into two groups: one receiving  autonomy-supportive instructions and the other receiving  autonomy-controlling instructions. The autonomy-supportive  group was offered a reward as a token of appreciation, while the  autonomy-controlling group was told the reward was to reinforce  performance standards.  After reading instructions, participants completed a self-report  measuring the satisfaction of their psychological needs and  reported their intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Results	1. Self-report measures revealed: - Autonomy-supported psychological need satisfaction positively correlated with intrinsic motivation and performance. - Autonomy-supported psychological need satisfaction negatively correlated with extrinsic motivation. - Autonomy-controlled psychological need frustration negatively correlated with intrinsic motivation and performance.Ayesha Shakil 8 - Autonomy-controlled psychological need frustration positively correlated with extrinsic motivation. 2. Presenting rewards in a manner that supports autonomy leads to: - Better performance on tasks, such as the anagram task, compared to methods that control or threaten autonomy. - Enhanced intrinsic motivation over extrinsic motivation.

Conclusions	Conclusion:   - Utilizing rewards that bolster psychological needs can:  - Increase intrinsic motivation.   - Improve overall employee performance more effectively than  rewards that undermine psychological needs.
Strengths	-Control measures used increasing standardisation -Quantitative data was produced, for e.g. self-report using likert scale this data is object and allows statistical tests to be used  and comparisons to be made, increasing the reliability of the  results.  -Informed consent was gained and confidentiality was  maintained, there was also no suggestion of distress or  psychological harm
Weaknesses	-Sampling Bias: even though a large number of 153 participants  was used they all came from the same course and same  Canadian uni; therefore, they all have similar characteristics and  findings cannot be generalised to anyone from diff culture or diff  uni etc.   -Use of laboratory experiments. This study took place in an  artificial environment rather than in a real workplace this lowers  ecological validity.
Issues and Debates	- Individual and situational explanations: Landry et al. explore  whether motivation stems from personal satisfaction or  situational factors like monetary rewards, emphasizing the  importance of both in workplace performance.  - Reductionism versus holism: The study is criticized for its  reductionist view, focusing solely on self-determination in  performance and neglecting other factors like personality and  experience, contrasting with a holistic approach that considers  broader influences.  - Idiographic versus nomothetic: Utilizing a nomothetic  approach, Landry et al. seek general laws about workplace  performance through experimental methodology, overlooking  individual uniqueness and context.